In this nearly twice-life-sized portrait, Marcus Aurelius is depicted mounted on a warhorse. The rider is dressed in a short tunic and a military cloak (paludamentum), which trails behind him onto the horse's back and sides. His sandals are those of a civil magistrate (calcei senatorii), not a soldier. The rider sits erect, leaning slightly forward, without stirrups, on an ornamented caparison. The horse stands with three hooves on the ground, and the right front leg lifted dramatically. Marcus's right hand is extended, palm down, in a gesture of clemency (clementia). The lowered left hand once held the reins (now lost). The rider has a full unclipped beard, curly hair, and a placid, benign expression, which contrasts strikingly with the agitation of the horse's head and mouth. Marcus's gaze is directed downward and to the right, to a point immediately in front of the horse. The horse's head is also turned slightly down and to the right.

Significance:

Though equestrian portaits were common during the empire, this is the only complete statue of a mounted rider to survive from imperial Rome. The statue's preservation is the fortunate result of its being mistaken as a portrait of the Christian emperor Constantine the Great. The pose of horse and rider is very similar to a mounted figure on the arch of Marcus Aurelius, where the emperor renders the gesture of clementia to kneeling captives in front of his horse. This fact, along with independent documentary evidence, has led scholars to conclude that this equestrian portrait once included a kneeling captive (now lost) beneath the horse's raised right leg. Despite the pacific gesture of the rider and the near stationary pose of the horse, the entire statue radiates a great power and a barely suppressed energy that comports with the frenetic activity of Marcus's reign.

The rider's lack of weapons and the civilian footware may allude to Marcus's desire to be seen as a bringer of peace, rather than simply as a conquering war hero. As a monumental role portrait, the statue thus combines two aspects of Marcus's principate that he wishes to emphasize: martial triumphalism and pacific equanimity.]]> Katalog der romischen
Portrats in den Capitolischen Museen und den anderen
kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom. Band 1, Verlag
Philipp von Zabern, 1985, pp. 72-74.

Kleiner, Diana. Roman Sculpture. Yale University Press, 1992,
pp. 270-272.

Musei Capitolini tutte le opere, www.museicapitolini.org/en/percorsi/percorsi_per_sale/museo_del_palazzo_dei_conservatori/esedra_di_marco_aurelio/statua_equestre_di_marco_aurelio

Wood, Shakespere. The Capitoline Museum of Sculpture: A
Catalogue. Printing Office of the Propaganda Fide, Rome,
1872, pp. 10-11.]]> Meditations, a statement of his Stoic philosophy. Marcus Aurelius died of natural causes on a military campaign against Germanic tribes, and was succeeded as emperor by his son Commodus.]]> Description:
The statue of the Equestrian Domitian-Nerva is made of bronze and the bronze has traces of a red/brown tint. The body of the statue itself is mostly preserved, however pieces of the neck are missing as is the right eye. The head and front legs of the horse are preserved and the rest of the horse's body is a modern reconstruction. The man (Domitian-Nerva) is riding horseback and would have, presumably, been holding a spear. There is also a seam in the metal work where the face of Nerva was added on as Domitian’s face was taken off.

The face of the statue of Equestrian Domitian-Nerva is the face of Nerva. Nerva has downward facing eyebrows, an elongated/hooked nose, and a small chin. Furthermore, Nerva has an aged face as he has lines and creases around his mouth, nose, and on his forehead. There is a sense of verism, however it is not an extreme case. Both Domitian and Nerva had a full head of curly hair as seen in this bronze statue.

The body of the statue is that of Domitian’s. The emperor is wearing a metal breastplate, or a cuirass, as well as his military cloak, also known as a paludamentum, over his left shoulder. He is also wearing senatorial shoes. The breastplate is ornately decorated with the head of Medusa in the center and Hercules as an infant slaying snakes on the right shoulder strap.

Significance:
The appearance of Equestrian Domitian-Nerva is significant in that it tells the story of both Domitian and Nerva. The statue was commissioned for Domitian. Scholars know that the body of the statue is that of Domitian because of the baby Hercules on the shoulder strap. Domitian’s identification with Hercules is his attempt to show that he comes from a divine lineage/family and that he is perhaps similar to Hercules. The head of Medusa in the center of the breastplate is meant to be an apotropaic symbol, meaning that it is supposed to act as a protective device and ward off evil.

While it is not entirely certain, it is believed that the statue of Domitian-Nerva is engaged in some sort of hunt. The statue has on senatorial shoes and not military boots; the senatorial shoes are for civilian magistrates and would not have been worn during battle. These shoes show his elite status, as he is the Emperor of Rome. Additionally, scholars state that he is not equipped with a shield, sword, and helmet making it extremely unlikely that this statue is portraying anything military related. The statue also instills a new sense of manliness, or a new virtue. While past statues/representations of emperors have focused on the manliness of participating in military conquests/activities, the statue of Equestrian Domitian-Nerva shows how a man could be seen as manly if he engaged in the act of a hunt (i.e. lions, deer, etc.). Domitian was a skilled hunter and was often on a hunt; the statue would have shown that in its original state. It is odd to see Nerva hunting as it was not an acitivity he engaged in.

The importance of Nerva, in the case of this statue, comes to play with only the face. As mentioned above, the entirety of the body is attributed with Domitian. After Domitian’s damnatio memoriae, the face of the Domitian statue was replaced with the face of Nerva, making it now a statue of Nerva. This is a clear example of how a statue of a former emperor could have been reworked into a statue of a new/current emperor. The face of Nerva has age defining elements (i.e. long nose, his eyebrows, creases around mouth/nose) on it. It is important to note that Nerva was 66 years old so he in fact was old. Nerva has curly hair, which is especially evident on his forehead. This is his attempt at connecting himself with the Augustan and Julio-Claudian modes of representation. This might be an attempt to break himself away from the Flavians or perhaps just Domitian.

]]>
Tuck, Steven L. A History of Roman Art (2015). pp. 198-199]]>
Nerva came to power at an old age and only served as emperor for a short period of time, between 96-98 A.D. Nerva, a Roman senator, was selected by the senate to be the next emperor of Rome as Domitian had no heir selected to succeed him. Nerva died of natural causes and was succeeded by his adopted-son, Trajan. After Trajan assumed power, he deified Nerva.]]> ]]> Description:
This life-size, half-length bust of Commodus is composed of marble, giving it a polished white appearance throughout. The base of the bust contains a globe in the center, with the designs of the astrological symbols of Scorpio, Taurus, and Capricorn. Atop the globe are two crossed cornucopias, with a shield between them. The shield has two eagles curling around the top, and an image of Medusa on the front. To the right of the shield is a headless Amazonian woman. She is wearing sandals as well as a flowing dress, covering most of her chest. Atop the base, Commodus is portrayed with his chest bare. Clear muscular definition is evident around the chest. The right hand of the bust is slightly in front of the body, holding a large club which rests upon the right shoulder. The club has various small circles jutting from it. His left forearm is extended out, palm face up. He is clutching numerous small apples in this open hand. He is crowned with the pelt of a lion; the nose and mouth of the lion open around his forehead. The paws of the lion pelt are draped around his shoulders and tied at the center of his chest. Clear folds can be seen throughout the arms and back of the pelt (behind the neck of Commodus). Commodus is portrayed young, as there are very few wrinkles on the face of the bust. The head is tilted slightly to the right, giving the appearance of a deep gaze at some far away structure. The face is rather long and oval shaped while the lips are closed in a way that emanates a stern expression. The nose is large and slightly hooked at the end and the eyes are drilled with arched eyebrows above. A thick and full beard is present on the chin, with deeply drilled holes to help better define the myriad of curls. This beard connects to the hair on the head, which is carved in a similar style. The various drilled holes add volume to hair, making it appear very thick and layered.

Significance:
Commodus inherited Rome following a time of great peace and stability. Unfortunately, his decisions and madness led to a civil war and period of severe instability. Works such as this bust are evidence of his madness and portray why he was ultimately killed. Commodus believed himself to be the Greek demi-god Hercules. In this bust, he is portrayed in the guise of Hercules. He is shown in heroic nudity, wearing only the pelt of a lion on his head. Defeating the Nemean lion was one of the labors Hercules completed on his quest toward becoming divine. In addition, Commodus is resting a large club on his right shoulder, which was the choice weapon of Hercules. Finally, his left hand is clutching numerous apples, representing the golden apples of Hesperides. Stealing these apples was one of the final labors of Hercules. Commodus is representing himself here with all the various emblems of Hercules. By extension, he is presented with all the virtues of the demi-god as well. The inclusion of the apples of Hesperides are essential to this piece, as they represent Hercules at the end of his labors becoming immortal and divine. Commodus is depicting himself as immortal and divine as well; he has achieved this same status as Hercules and is on his way to becoming a god. This statue was originally flanked by two Tritons, one on each side, holding a curtain over the head of Commodus. These were meant to express his apotheosis, or elevation to divine status.

Commodus’s divine rule is further enforced through the base supporting the bust. A globe is on the bottom, with three zodiac symbols representing the month of October (The Bull, Capricorn, and Scorpion). This was a very significant month in the life of Commodus, as this was the month of his official accession to Rome. He even went so far as to rename the month Hercules. Commodus being atop the globe represents the global rule of the Roman Empire in addition to its’ protection under Commodus. An Amazon is kneeling next to the globe, and likely would have been originally mirrored on the other side. A Pelta is shown above the globe, which is a special type of Amazonian shield. Between the Pelta and globe are two crossed cornucopias. The kneeling Amazons and their shield portray the conquest over barbarians. Rome is presented atop these prisoners and spoils. Hercules fought against the Amazons during his labors, so Commodus chose to use them as a metaphor for the Barbarians which constantly were threatening Rome. The cornucopias represent abundance and the wealth of the Roman Empire. This bust acts not only as a display of Commodus’s divine aspirations, but a political statement on the strength of the Roman Empire. It should be noted that Commodus did not entirely abandon his familial history in his portraiture. The facial structure and full, curled, deeply drilled beard and hair are a direct link to his father, the previous emperor Marcus Aurelius. Commodus is depicting himself as Hercules, yet still highlighting his Antonine heritage

]]> http://www.museicapitolini.org/en/percorsi/percorsi_per_sale/museo_del_palazzo_dei_conservatori/sale_degli_horti_lamiani/busto_di_commodo_come_ercole

D.E.E.Kleiner. Roman Sculpture 1992 Yale University Press. pp. 275-277

Wind, Edgar. “In Defence of Composite Portraits.” Journal of the Warburg Institute, vol. 1, no. 2, 1937, pp. 138–142. JSTOR

Hannah, Robert. “The Emperor's Stars: The Conservatori Portrait of Commodus.” American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 90, no. 3, 1986, pp. 337–342. JSTOR, JSTOR

Tuck, Steven L. "A History of Roman Art". Wiley Blackwell. U.K 2015 pp. 251-254
]]> This is a mummy case made of lime wood covered in plaster and paint. The paint was applied using the encaustic method. The paint depicts the portrait of a young man wearing a white tunic on his body and a gold laurel wreath around his head which is the “Crown of Justification”. He has medium skin and dark hair that are realistic painted. The rest of the case features iconographic scenes relating to funerals and death with depictions of some of the Egyptian gods. The scenes are done in gold on a dark red background. There is an inscription that reads “APTEMIΔѠPE EYΨYXI” in Greek or “Farewell, Artemidorus”.

One of the scenes is of the god Anubis attending to the mummy with the goddesses Isis and Nephthys on either side of the body. Another shows the God Osiris awakening new life. There is also a boat which refers to the passing of a soul from life to the underworld.

Significance:
This work is significant because it is an example of the mummy portraits that we have from Hawara. Hawara is a site in Egypt that was excavated and many mummy portraits were found. There are mummy portraits from other sites as well but what is different about the ones from Hawara is they are mostly done on limewood not oak. The mummy portraits were often wood panels cut into arched shapes and done using encaustic, a painting method of mixing pigment with heated beeswax. The limewood panels are significant because limewood was not native to that area and therefore had to be important which shows that the sitters had some sort of wealth or power. The sitters are shown in Greco-Roman dress, hairstyle, and jewelry, despite being from Egypt. This portrait shows a mixing of different cultures with the sitter having a Greek name, it being a Roman-style portrait, and traditionally Egyptian funerary methods and imagery.]]>
Egan, Emily. “Late Empire.” ARTH488A Ancient Mediterranean Portraiture, University of Maryland, College Park, MD. 10 Apr 2018. Lecture.

“Mummy case and portrait of Artemidorus.” The British Museum, Google Arts and Culture. Web. Accessed 14 Apr 2018.

Walker, Susan. “Mummy Portraits and Roman Portraiture.” Ancient Faces: Mummy Portraits from Roman Egypt, New York. 2000. pg. 23-25. Print.]]> Description:
The portrait is of a young woman and is made of white marble. It is a bust-length styled portrait meaning that the portrait only extends to about shoulder length. The bust features drapery on the woman’s shoulder indicating that her body would have been clothed.

She has a narrow, oval face as well as almond-shaped eyes. The face, which shows little to no emotion, features groomed, feathery eyebrows and a delicate mouth. She has a long and narrow nose. Her head is angled slightly to the left. Her hair covers the ears.

The hairstyle of the young Flavian woman is the centerpiece of the bust. The hair sits high above her head and has a lot of volume. The bust has ringlets of hairs outlining the face. The curls of hair then terminate into a braided bun on the back of the head. The ringlets of hair are rendered through drilling and emphasize the contrast of light and dark.

The bust has some damage on it. The tip of the nose appears to have been broken off and later restored. Additionally, it looks as if the head of the bust has been reattached given the filled in crease on the neck. Some of her curls are also missing.

Significance:
The Bust of the Young Flavian Woman is a symbol of Roman values and virtues as well as her status. According to scholars, her intricate and complex hairstyle enhanced her virtue as a wife and mother as the woman would have had an idealized personal appearance. Furthermore, the upkeep of her personal appearance would have enhanced the husband’s reputation.

Additionally, the elaborate low, tight bun shows the Young Flavian Woman’s sense of modesty, an important Roman value. We have seen the low tight bun on other elite women, including on Octavia and Livia. The artist chose to represent the bust with a glimpse of clothing. This is significant in that she would have been clothed and, again, would have shown her modesty and dignity.

While we do not know the age of the woman portrayed in the bust, she is sculpted in a very youthful and idealized manner showing no age and/or deformities. While it is very possible that the woman is young in age, it might also be possible that her youthfulness comes  from the idea of how women were portrayed how they should be seen and/or how men saw them.

The hairstyle also shows her status. This elaborate hairstyle would have required the use of wax and wires to hold the hair in place and would have been fairly difficult to do alone. Thus, the woman would have more than likely had servants to assist her with her hair.

]]> Roman Sculpture (1992). pp. 177-180

Tuck, Steven L. A History of Roman Art (2015). pp. 197-199

https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/roman/early-empire/v/portrait-bust-of-a-flavian-woman-fonseca-bust.
Accessed March 24, 2017. ]]> Caligula stands upright in contrapposto, putting most of his weight on his left foot, while his right foot trails behind. On his feet, he wears the calcei patricii, intricate leather-bound shoes, which indicate his lofty social status. He is adorned with a toga, delicately rendered with many folds, demonstrating the skill of the carver. After study by the VMFA, it has been determined that so little pigment remains on the toga that identification of its style is not conclusive. Even so, what pigment that does remain suggests either a toga praetexta with a broad purple stripe or a toga purpurea featuring imperial purple and a gold border.

The statue has been carved from one piece of marble, rather than a separately carved bust being placed into a stock body. Caligula’s head is turned slightly to the right, likely a visual reference to the Lysippan portrait of Alexander. Caligula’s head is uncovered, distinct from other veiled portrait busts of him that survive. His physiognomy exhibits a number of traditional features of the Claudian gens. He has a long, almost mullet-like hairstyle extending to the neck, a protruding upper lip, and wide cranium. More particular to Caligula are his deep, close-set eyes, straight nose, and high forehead.His hair is arranged in a comma lock pattern that is consistent with other Julio-Claudians. He even has a slight part of the hair nearer to his left eye that is reminiscent of Augustus. This hair configuration confirms this portrait as belonging to the Schloss Fasanerie Type, the main imperial portrait for Caligula.

The statue has been restored by the VMFA though some damage is still visible on the face. There is some chipping on both of his ears, his nose, and underneath his chin. The statue is also missing its arms, and the toes on his fronted, left foot. Separated from the statue in antiquity with a clean cut, the head has been restored, though careful analysis confirms that the body and head belong together.

Significance:
The VMFA Caligula is one of two statues known of the emperor with its head and body still extant; the other was found in the town of Gortyn on Crete. Relatively few portraits of Caligula remain as a result of the unofficial damnatio memoriae carried out against him by his successor and uncle, Claudius. As the first emperor to receive this treatment, Caligula establishes the precedent for the process. A damnatio memoriae necessitates a removal of an individual from public memory of Rome, including a removal from public monuments, alteration of portrait statues, and denial of deification. As a result, most portrait statues of Caligula have either been destroyed or re-carved into portraits of other emperors, usually Claudius or Augustus.

Caligula is represented somewhat modestly in his portrait. He does not have any imperial regalia, nor does he have any religious garb that is attested on coinage and other busts. The only recognizably noble feature of his portrait, aside from the Julio-Claudian hair and other physiognomic features, are his shoes. The portrait is generally rendered in an idealistic style. Suetonius remarks that Caligula was balding and so sensitive about his hair loss that looking down on the emperor was a capital offense. This portrait seems to represent Caligula as a modest princeps, rather than a semi-divine emperor.
]]> ]]>
Jucker, Hans 1973. “Caligula.” Translated by Pinkney L. Near. Arts in Virginia 13 (2): 16-25.

Ternbach, Joseph. 1973. “Further Comments on ‘Caligula.’” Arts in Virginia 14 (2): 29-32.

Varner, Eric R. 2000. “Tyranny and the Transformation of the Roman Visual Landscape” in From Caligula to Constantine Tyranny & Transformation in Roman Portraiture. pp. 9-12.

Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. 1973. Ancient Art in the Virginia Museum. Richmond, VA. pp. 122-123.

Virginia Museum of Fine Arts. “Caligula: Preserving the Past.” https://www.vmfa.museum/mlit/caligula-conserving-past-2/
]]> The statue is of Augustus himself with a youthful, idealized body and in the adlocutio pose. He stands contrappasto with most of his weight on his right leg and his left leg trailing behind him. His hair is in the Primaporta hair type, but has the addition of comma locks. He is dressed in military attire, wearing a cuirass and a draped paludamentum hanging on his left arm and wrapping around his hips and the hilt of the sword showing through the cloak. The cuirass has an intricate scene decoration featuring gods and goddesses and the return of the lost standard of the Golden Eagle. His legs are visible from just above the knee and below and he is depicted without shoes on, instead of wearing the typical military caligi. At his right leg, a baby cupid with wings is riding a dolphin and reaches the height of Augustus’ knee.

Significance:
The youthful depiction of Augustus shows longevity and potential for his rule over Rome. It also shows him as a semi-divine figure as gods were depicted as youthful and strong. This calls back to the Greek ideal of youthfulness and athleticism, which Augustus is adopting despite the fact that he was middle-aged during the making of this portrait. The primaporta hair type is classified as a cap of hair with a part above the inner left eye followed by an immediate crab claw. The hair is flatter and not as much volume, but this depiction of the primaporta hair type includes comma locks. The inclusion of comma locks connects Augustus to his adoptive father, Caesar, and brings Caesar’s victories and accomplishments to the viewer’s mind when looking at Augustus’ portrait.
The adlocutio pose shows Augustus in the role of an orator, actively speaking and addressing his troops, possibly inspiring them to go into battle. The cuirass, paludamentum, and sword hilt show Augustus in the role of a military commander.
The main decoration of the cuirass is the return of the military standard of the Golden Eagle. This is significant because Augustus was able to conquer a foreign territory and obtain the Golden Eagle from the Parthians by negotiation, not by warfare. This communicates the image of Augustus as the bringer of Pax Romana to Rome. There are female personifications of territories surrounding the central scene that provide a visual reference to the other territories Augustus had conquered. The presence of gods and goddesses on the cuirass show that Augustus has the support of the divine.
More symbolism of the divine are the cupid and dolphin at his right leg. The dolphin is an attribute to Venus, but also an allusion to his naval victory of Actium over Cleopatra and Mark Antony. Baby cupid is the son of Venus and another nod to his divine lineage. His adopted father, Caesar claimed to be descended from Venus, therefore so was Augustus. His bare feet are a nod to nudity, which is a feature of depictions of divine figures. It is also a feature of Greek athletes, again showing his youthfulness, strength, and divine lineage. In this portrait, Augustus is in the role of orator, military commander, and a young Apollo. These images were used as propaganda to rally the support of Roman citizens and show his strength as a ruler.
]]>
http://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/braccio-nuovo/Augusto-di-Prima-Porta.html

Scott, Kenneth. "The Political Propaganda of 44–30 B.C." Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 11, (1933), pp. 7–49.

Zanker, P. (1988) The power of images in the age of Augustus. Translated by Alan Shapiro. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, p. 188.]]>
The head of middle-aged matron appears on a nude, youthful body in the so-called "modest [pudica] Venus" pose. The weight is placed on the left leg (which is braced with a carved support), the right leg relaxed in a contraposto arrangement. Her plain, almost masculine face betrays signs of age in the folds under the eyes and in the naso-labial lines. Her nose is long and narrow; her mouth is wide with moderately thin lips. The head is angled slightly forward, giving her a wary expression.

The coiffure is extremely elaborate in the Flavian style, with a dominating armature of hair outlining the face, and a tight bun behind. Deep drilling renders the hair curls.

The nose is chipped; two fingers on right hand and the entire left forearm is missing. On the plinth, to the figure's right, are two small feet, presumably the remains of the child Amor (Cupid), companion of Venus in traditional representations.

Significance:

This guise portrait harkens back to well-known representations of Venus/Aphrodite. In particular, it recalls the "Capitoline Venus," itself a copy Praxiteles's 4th century BCE Aprhodite of Knidos, depicting the goddess stepping out of the bath. The missing left hand would have covered her pudenda, while the right arm crosses her left breast in an attitude of pudicitia (a gesture of modesty in which the hands and arms cover the private parts). The nude female portrait is a Roman invention; in Greek art, female portraits are always clothed.

This peculiar age-youth hybridization had been featured in male imperial portraits before. The fact that it here extends to an elite woman is significant. The effect of the middle-aged face coupled to a youthful body is unsettling, even grotesque, to modern sensibilities. But for ancient elite Romans such juxtapositions were considered perfectly normal. In this case, a respectable Roman matron, possibly the wife of an emperor, is presented in the divine guise of Venus, one of the state gods of Rome, as well as representative of fecundity. The somewhat shocking combination of the lush nude body on a respectable Roman matron must be read as an allusion to her fecundity, and primary role as bearer of male children.]]> Likeness: A Conceptual History of Ancient
Portraiture, Northwestern University Press, 1968, pp. 201-
202

D'Ambra, Eva. "The Calculus of Venus: Nude Portraits of Roman
Matrons." Sexuality in Ancient Art: Near East, Egypt,
Greece, Rome,  edited by Natalie Kampen and Bettina
Bergmann, Cambridge University Press, 1996, pp. 219-232.

Hallett, Christopher. The Roman Nude: Heroic Portrait Statuary
200 BC - 300 AD, Oxford University Press, 2005, pp. 199-
201.

Johansen, Flemming. Catalogue of Roman Portraits II, Ny
Carlsberg Glyptotek, 1995, p. 50.

Kleiner, Diana. Roman Sculpture, Yale University Press, 1992,
   pp. 177-179.]]> This is a full body statue of a woman, Livia. She is wearing a traditional ancient Roman stola, long pleated robe, and draped in a palla, square fabric around the body. The fabric is elaborately carved with many folds and hugs the figure of the Livia. She also has an elaborate hairstyle braided back to a bun or nodus. There is a bump in the hair on her forehead. She is wearing a crown of flowers and headband with fabric draped over her head as well. In her left hand she is holding a cornucopia filled with fruits and vegetables and in her right hand has grains, both are very clear references to Ceres. Livia has a beautiful face that is symmetrical and has smooth idealized skin. The eyes are large almond shapes and the mouth is very small. The face is very clearly Livia’s face, as can be determined by looking at other portraits of her, even though she is in the guise of Ceres.

Significance:
In this statue Livia is being portrayed in the guise of Ceres. Ceres is the goddess of agriculture and the harvest in the Roman pantheon. This being a guise portraits means that it is Livia’s face with attributes, and possibly the rest of the body, that are common for a particular individual, often a god or goddess. By doing this the aspects of the god or goddess is then assumed by the sitter of the portrait. The connection to Ceres is being made in order to emphasize Livia’s role as the mother of Tiberius, a Roman emperor. It is also highlighting nature and fertility through the plants and cornucopia. Her dress of the stola and palla are also referencing her motherhood as they are both common in a traditional Roman marriage. The emphasis on her fertility show how she does not just provide for her family but for the whole Roman empire through her marriage to Octavian and being the mother of Tiberius.]]>
Kleiner, D. E. E. 1994. Roman Sculpture, New Haven. pp. 75-78.

Marie-Benedicte, Astier. “Livia.” The Louvre Museum. Web.
]]> Description:
This larger than life-size statue of Claudius is composed of marble, giving it a white appearance throughout. An inscription is below the statue base, which states that this statue was erected in 42-43 by the senate and people of Lanuvium to honor Claudius. He is standing in a contrapposto stance, with his right leg forward with the weight resting on it. His left foot is positioned behind, with its’ heel raised and knee slightly bent. An eagle is next to his right leg and is looking up at Claudius. He is draped in a piece of cloth that wraps around his waist, covering his thighs and knees, and extends over his left shoulder. A myriad of deep folds can be seen across the piece of fabric. The stomach and chest of the statue portrays a youthful, strong body. Abdominal muscles are shown in addition to clear muscular definition on the biceps and forearms. His right arm is held out in front of him at a downwards angle. He is holding a small round disk in his palm, likely a patera. His left arm is held upwards around his head, clutching a scepter. The head of Claudius shows an older man with closed lips, ever so slightly upturned. Lines running from the nose to the corner of the mouth are distinct, in addition to multiple bags underneath the eyes. Small crows’ feet extend from the corner of the long eyes. The forehead is creased, and his ears are facing slightly forward. In the left eye, there appears to be faint traces of a red/orange paint, indicating the statue was originally colored. Claudius’s hair is done in the comma lock style, with a part in the center above the left eye. He is wearing a corona civica, a crown of oak leaves around his head, leaving a small gap in the center above his forehead. Running down both sides of his neck is a piece of fabric, likely the tail end of the oak leaf crown.

Significance:
This massive statue of Claudius signifies a departure from idealism and a return to verisim in Roman portraiture. While the body of this statue is youthful and idealized, that is because it is designed in the guise of the god Jupiter. Gods are always depicted with muscular and young bodies, and the eagle and scepter are both symbols of Jupiter. Scholars dispute the interpretation of the patera in the left hand of Claudius, as they believe that it was originally holding a thunderbolt, further signifying the connection to the god. Portraying Claudius in this way served to connect the emperor with Jupiter. It represents his power and rule over the Roman world, mimicking Jupiter’s role as king of the Gods. The predominate nudity of the statue may also serve as a connection to Greek heroic nudity. Moreover, Claudius was not the most physically able man, as he suffered from a stutter and limp. By depicting him with the body of Jupiter, these physical ailments would be concealed, and he could be represented as strong rather than weak. Contrasting his idealized body, the head was done in the veristic style to capture Claudius’s age and more lifelike appearance. Wrinkles and signs of age are intentionally included; the interpretation is that to the Romans, this is evidence of experience and the virtues which they may possess. Claudius chose to employ the veristic style for his portraiture to represent a return to Republican values and ideals, as the Republic is when verisim originated. He was further trying to distance himself from the previous emperor, Caligula. Caligula’s reign was a time of terror, so Claudius thought it best to separate himself as much as possible. However, Claudius still represented himself with the Julio-Claudian hairstyle involving comma locks and a part in the center. He is still maintaining his familial line through his representation in portraiture, yet simultaneously distancing himself from his predecessors and marking a return to verisim.]]>

Kleiner, Fred S. “A History of Roman Art, Enhanced Edition”. Cengage Learning Feb 4, 2010. P.p.109-110

Kleiner, E.E Diana. "Roman Sculpture". Yale University Press, 1992. P.p. 130-133

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